Drawing Surrealism: An Enthralling Exhibition on Drawings of the Surrealists

 In the early-mid twentieth century, artists were moving in a new direction with the rapid changes in the modern world. The war had an impact on artists and their way of thinking. Attitudes of disgust and outrage sought to challenge society. A desire for a new radical approaches to art and experience was already underway when in 1924, André Breton; a French writer and poet wrote the first Manifesto of Surrealism, defining it as “Psychic automatism in its pure state, by which one proposes to express... the actual functioning of thought... in the absence of any control exercised by reason, exempt from any aesthetic or moral concern” (MoMA). The Surrealists sought to displace the harsh standards of society by tampering with any logical thought. Highly influenced by Freud’s theories of the unconscious mind, the expression of the imagination and dreams were depicted in Surrealist art. Artists sought to free the conscious control and the perception of reality. The Surrealists were close-knit group of working artists although they had strong individual characteristics to their art. They all followed the same concept in which their art was to be created through the unconscious thought and any conscious thinking must be obliterated.

From January 25 through April 21, 2013, the Morgan Library housed one of the largest collections of Surrealist drawings consisting of over 160 works by 70 artists from 15 different countries. The time span is from 1915 to 1950. Several iconic artists such as Max Ernst, Joan Miró, Salvador Dalí and even Jackson Pollock were included in the exhibition. The show focuses       on the exploration of drawing as the central role in Surrealism. Drawing was the most prominent medium chosen to present one of the most influential movement from the twentieth century. Drawing has always been second to painting and sculpture in the history of art. The Surrealists relied heavily on drawing for expression and innovation because it had intrinsic qualities of immediacy and spontaneity. Since Surrealism is art made through unconscious thought, a medium that does not require conscious control is valued. Drawing Surrealism portrays drawing in its most intimate setting, where one can wander through the exhibition and feel the same excitement and ‘newness’ of this compelling movement as it once had. In this small-gallery environment, the show is orderly displayed. Drawings are grouped by style and concept of creation. Automatism, frottage, the exquisite corpse games, collage, decalcomania, and dream imagery are the groups that make up this broad definition of drawing to the Surrealists. 

Automatism, or automatic drawing is defined as Andé Breton claimed in his Surrealist Manifest that “Psychic automatism in its pure state, by which one proposes to express... the actual functioning of thought... in the absence of any control exercised by reason, exempt from any aesthetic or moral concern.” One must let their hand meander to elude any conscious thought and tap directly into the unconscious mind. If the hand is fast enough, conscious thoughts cannot interrupt or take control. This was the closest to unveiling the unconscious as one can achieve. After the web of unconsciously driven lines has been applied, the artist would soon go back and add more. An interesting example of this process, André Masson’s ‘Battle of Fishes,’ 1926, uses an array of materials such as sand, gesso, oil, pencil and charcoal to allude to an ‘automatic painting.‘The application of materials was done in a free manner.

Frottage, the second category, consists of rubbing graphite on a sheet of paper which was placed over a textured surface. Max Ernst, Surrealist artist, claims that frottage is almost equivalent to automatic writing because it is an unconscious means by which the image becomes.  Ernst was one of the few who relied heavily on the technique of frottage in his work, and it is done masterfully. ‘Le Start du Châtaigner,’ 1925 is an example of a Surrealist landscape created through frontage.

Directly after examples of frottage, one will move on to ‘The Exquisite Corpse’. The Exquisite Corpse is one of the most well-known games played by the Surrealists artists. It is a collaboration and the final work is created by chance. Each participant is given a folded section, one by one, and must create a figure driven by their unconscious mind. They will pass along the paper to the next and continue down the line of participants. The end results in a hybrid creature that often inspired many artists in their personal work. Victor Brauner is an artist whose work is influenced by the game of the Exquisite Corpse and on view is a drawing of one of these creatures in a dream-like space, “Le Déserteur.” This game was an activity which aloud artists to tap directly into the unconscious to do their part in the drawing. 

Collage was another major way of art the Surrealist’s used to demonstrate the irrationality of unconscious desire. They would create odd juxtapositions of dream-like visions and distorted images. Collages were a form of expression and there are endless possibilities of creating. Every element included is chosen by the unconscious thought and assembled to create a Surrealist image. Decalcomania was yet another technique in which automatism neglected rational thinking by applying wet mediums such as watercolor or ink-wash, pressing to another piece of paper and pulled apart. Unexpected patterns and textures are created by chance. Artists who create work in this technique typically leave the works to be untitled, and praise their spontaneity of creation. The beautiful images are yet again left to the unconscious thought.

The most well-recognizable style of Surrealism is Dream Imagery. These drawings require the traditional techniques such as detail, tone, and value. Although they are detailed and realistic drawings, they may still be unknown to the human eye. They depict a dream-like fantasy world that only the unconscious can recognize. Salvador Dali may be the most well-known Surrealist artist who uses dream imagery to portray his unconscious. 

Late Surrealism ends the show with a powerful note. Automatism is used yet again to create lyrical abstractions. Artists use freer techniques to create these works. Many of these works laid the groundworks for Abstract Expressionism, another one of the most prominent movements of the modern world. Ellsworth Kelly is included with drawings of abstract compositions that are based on chance, which is an expression of the unconscious. We are even introduced to an early work of Jackson Pollock, in which critic Sanford Schwartz claims “is the most dynamic and richly textured such tapping, or automatic drawing, in the show. It is a record of one disparate skirmish, as it were, after another that ends up having, remarkably, a breathing unity. It isn’t, in date, the last work in the exhibition, and it is not precisely a work of Surrealism, but it is a kind of fulfillment of an avenue of Surrealist thought” (Sanford). Although it could be argued by others, Pollack’s drawing just may be one of the most compelling works of the show as it shows an Abstract Expressionist who is highly influenced by the concerns of Surrealism. 

As an avid museum-goer and artist, I am open to new ideas and forms of expression within art. To be honest; personally, I was never fond of Surrealism. I never had a reason to be critical, I just have never found interest in dream-like imagery. I’ve always believed that Surrealism was the depiction of strange and hybrid creatures floating in a dark and dream-like abyss; this made me look past the concept or thought process behind it all. If I wasn’t introduced to this collection of Surrealist drawings, I do not think I would have grown much appreciation for Surrealist art. It opened me up to find admiration within it, as well as an abiding desire to study it more. I believe the reason for this is the fact that the show was limited to drawings. I strongly feel that if the show was open to painting and sculpture, it would not have the same effect. It would not achieve the same excitement that resulted in this intimate setting. I was not overwhelmed by the amount of work portrayed, rather, I was at ease sauntering through the configuration. Having only focused on Surrealist drawings, we are given a new appreciation for drawing itself, as well as Surrealism as a movement. Critic Maika Pollack claims “But beyond its art-historical scope, the show will be of interest to those with a curiosity about the relationship between the thought and the mark. Flirting with dreams, language, politics, chance and sex, the Surrealist drawing is something you can do at home—it is, the show suggests, an attitude towards the unconscious mind, rather than a historically bound epoch” (Pollack). This; one can agree with because it opens us to the idea that the process of creation through the unconscious is what is endeavored and beautiful about the work of Surrealism.

Pollack, Maika. "Gallerist NY." GalleristNY Drawing Surrealism at the MorganLibrary Comments. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 May 2013. <http://galleristny.com/2013/02/drawing-surrealism-at-the-morgan-library/>.

"MoMA Learning." MoMA. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 May 2013. <http://www.moma.org/learn/moma_learning/themes/surrealism>. 

Schwartz, Sanford. "The New York Review of Books." Surrealism Made Fresh by Sanford Schwartz. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 May 2013. <http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2013/apr/04/surrealism-made-fresh/?pagination=false>.

Gislebertus and the Last Judgement

Autun Cathedral is one of the most magnificent buildings from the Middle Ages in France. This Cathedral was built as a reliquary to house the relics of Saint Lazarus. Saint Lazarus was a Saint, brother of Mary Magdalene, resurrected by Christ and heir as being Christ’s last miracle. The Cathedral served as a Holy Land for Christian believers throughout Europe to visit the Cathedral and pray to the relics of Saint Lazarus. Relics were believed to have the power to heal the sick or lessen one’s time in purgatory if prayed to. They also served as a place to offer blessings (Boundless, 1). Not only was Autun a pilgrimage stop to visit the relics of Saint Lazarus, it was also a stop to observe first hand the magnificent sculptures that adorn the cathedral.

The Autun Cathedral has certain aspects of design and architecture that were inspired by that of the Classical Romans. Architectural elements such as fluted pilasters, foliate capitals, friezes and rounded arches show the influence of the ancient past. As stated by art historian Marian Bleeke, “An important thread in recent modern scholarship on Romanesque architecture and sculpture has taken the Roman reference in the term seriously and focused on investigating this material’s relationship to the ancient past... No longer seen as the product of a process of decline, contemporary scholars instead understand the Roman resemblances in Romanesque art to be deliberate references to the past, which were used to make meaningful statements in the medieval present” (Bleeke, 260). Romanesque art and architecture has been studied as being a direct reference to that of the ancient past. Scholars now see this romanesque style as a step forward and no longer a digression. It is completely evident that the Autun Cathedral is an example of Romanesque art and it substantial to its importance in furthering a study of the ancient past. 

It is believed that the sculptural work of the cathedral was done completely by one artist, Gislebertus; due to the consistency of images. There is a distinct likeness throughout the cathedral, from doorway to apse, from floor to capital. Not only was the Cathedral ornate, it was embellished with sculptures consisting of biblical scenes. This art served as a method of teaching to those who were illiterate. By depicting scenes in a realistic manner, observers were frightened by the horrific images portrayed, thus influencing them to be believers.

In particular, the Tympanum on the central portal of the west facade holds one of the most fierce and terrifying biblical depictions from the Autun Cathedral. The lunette consists of horizontal registers of dramatic scenes of the Last Judgement.  At an enormous scale, this monumental relief sculpture reminds the viewer that they are in the presence of God. Approaching the portal where the tympanum is situated, one would feel an overwhelming sensation of fear due to the horrific images portrayed and the massive, larger-than-life size figure of Christ looking outwards in judgement of salvation or damnation. 

The central figure is a depiction of Christ enthroned in the city of Heaven, metaphorically depicted via the almond-shaped full body halo called the mandorla. It is thought that early Christians used the mandorla to represent the coming together of heaven and earth. It also served as a halo that surrounds a holy person’s entire body (Sandplay.org). In this case, the mandorla represents Christ’s divinity. There is a sense of hieratic order due to the fact that Christ‘s enormousness overpowers the scenes illustrated in the Tympanum.  Christ stares out beyond the viewer signifying that it is too late for salvation from being damned to hell, and that he will only look past you. It is not the time to make up for your sins.  The figure of Christ is flat, frontal, almost two-dimensionally represented. 

Gislebertus. The Last Judgement Tympanum. Entrance to the nave of St. Lazare. c. 12th century.

There is little detail in the robe worn by Christ, a repetition of delicate lines indicate folds in the fabric. The fabric is pressed tightly against the slender body of Christ, revealing boney twig-like legs bent at the knee. The fabric begins to flow loosely at the bottom above his bare feet. The fabric sways and curls, giving a sense of movement that echoes the foliage embellishing the tympanum.  Directly behind Christ, within the mandorla, there seems to be an architectural element possibly representing the kingdom of Heaven. This appears as a stone wall consisting of rounded arches. Again, hieratic order depicts Christ towering over the ‘Kingdom of Heaven.’ These arches are small enough to fit within Christ’s hands. Situated below his feet is a repetition of smaller arches, which seem to convey a decorative element. The greatest amount of depth used in the mandorla are beneath Christ’s forearms. This dramatic use of depth creates contrast which gives the illusion that Christ is protruding forward into space.  His body is elongated and there are no concerns of proportion. He is symmetrically depicted and his body divides the mandorla almost perfectly. His head is directly center at the top of the mandorla as his feet are directly in the center of the bottom. His arms are spread and extend past the edge of the mandorla as they also break up the inscription that states, “OMNIA DISPONO SOLUS MERITOS QUE CORONO QUOS SCELUS EXERCET ME JUDICE POENA COERCE- I alone dispose of all things and crown the just, Those who follow crime I judge and punish” (Denny, 542). His hands are directed to the damned, to his left; and the saved, to his right.  Four angels surround Christ and they appear to be holding the mandorla, as though it bears weight. The bodies of these angels are elongated, flowing and twisting in motion. 

To Christ’s right are the blessed in heaven. There is an expression of relief and solace in the faces of the saved. There also seem to be more figures in heaven compared to hell. Beginning at the figures closest to Christ, we see a female figure throned on a dais, given height and imperial status over the newly welcomed souls in Heaven. It is suggested this figure is the Virgin Mary, mother of Christ, an

At left: Gislebertus. Tympanum detail c. 12th century.

indication of the hope for salvation. There is a distinct similarity to the halo of Mary to the halo of Christ. It is the only other halo in the tympanum that shares the same color as Christ’s halo. The stone is darker than any other element. Although hieratic scale portrays Mary as being a fifth of the size of Christ, she is placed at his shoulder height, one of the only figures as high as he is. Beside Mary, an angel gracefully blows a trumpet, welcoming souls to Heaven. Directly beneath them, a group of figures are represented as extremely elongated bodies swirling together in motion directing their view towards Christ. Their hands are together in prayer. It is suggested that these figures are the Apostles, due to their enormousness over the other figures. One of the figures in this grouping has their back turned away from Christ, gazing up to the architectural depiction of the gateway to Heaven, consisting of two large arches above six smaller arches, creating a balcony looking out over the kingdom of Heaven. This figure is considered to be St. Peter, holding the exceptionally large key that unlocks the gates of Heaven. There is a connection between the figures on the balcony and St. Peter. Their necks are relaxed, arched backwards connecting their gaze in a pleasing and comfortable manner. There is no need for an exchange of words, the mutual feeling of bliss encompasses all in Heaven. One figure, about half the size of St. Peter, reaches up and grasps one hand with both of his. An angel reaches upwards and assists one figure down from the balcony while another, possibly a child; leans against him, hugging his leg while gazing up at St. Peter. A tall, slender figure clasps his hand on the wing of the angel while looking back at another angel blowing a trumpet. The inscription below the inspirited souls in Heaven reads “QUISQUE RESUREGET ITA QUEM NON TRAHIT IMPIA VITA ET LUCEBIT EI SINE FINE LUCERN A DIEI- Thus shall rise again everyone who does not lead an impious life, and endless light of day shall shine for him” (Denny, 546).

To Christ’s left are the the souls that are damned to hell for eternity. There is an immense amount of emotion depicted on the faces of these helpless souls. Mirroring the dais the Virgin is placed upon in heaven, there are three figures on the platform above the scenes of hell. One, an angel blowing a trumpet, and the other two sitting close to one another who seem to be sharing words. One of these figures is holding a book. They both have halos and are placed at the same height as the Virgin, which suggests they are of high importance. Directly below these figures on the platform is a literal illustration of the weighing of souls. St. Michael is depicted at one end of the scale, gazing down at the soul in the scale.  A demon at the other end is forcefully weighing down the scale in order to drag more souls into the furnace of hell. There is an angel behind St. Michael gracefully looking up towards Christ. A demon swings on the scale with a fiendish grin. Two very small figures hide themselves behind the flowing robe of St. Michael. They stare in fear at the three-heading serpent slithering in their direction. There are souls that are being pulled into the fires of hell by the hands of demons. Those that are waiting to be grasped all share the same emotion on their face. Two figures hold on tightly to each other while being dragged away. Demons are illustrated as frightening ravenous creatures as they are reaching for more souls that are doomed for damnation. Yet another angel stands 

At right: Gislebertus. Tympanum detail c. 12th century.

beside blowing a trumpet. Below this scene is the inscription, “TERREAT HIC TERROR QUOS TERRUS ALLIGAT ERROR NUM FORE SIC VERUM NOTAT HIC HORROR SPECIERUM- Here let fear strike those whom earthly error binds, for their fate is shown by the horror of these figures” (Denny, 546).

On the lintel below the depictions of heaven and hell is a line of souls awaiting judgment.  These are the people who are being raised from the dead to face judgement. They stand atop a row of coffins which become a decorative frieze. There are almost twice as much figures than coffins portrayed.  There is an incredible amount of raw emotion and fear in the faces of these souls as they wait to learn their fate. Ever-so slightly from left to right, the figures grow more and more elongated, to the point where they are crouching in a tight area with a low ceiling. Yet the actual space stays a consistent height. It appears that as the figures get closer to learning their fate, the more emotion is portrayed. The first seven figures wait in line before an angel. There is a calmness to their expression, they seem worried, but are almost assured of their fate. Three smaller figures are clenching themselves to an angel, as if they were begging for a ride to heaven.  The figures after this angel appear to be more frightened. Two pilgrims are portrayed by the bags they are carrying. The figures positioned underneath Christ gaze up to him for salvation, Christ looks beyond them. Another angel pushes souls forward, hinting that their fate is already defined. There is more terror and panic arising as the figures proceed. Several cover their heads and crouch down, as if they are waiting to wake from a bad dream. 

Gislebertus. The Last Judgement Tympanum: Lintel c. 12th century.

Others are screaming as they watch hands protruding through the ceiling grasping the head of one damned soul. 

Don Denny, writer of “The Last Judgement Tympanum at Autun: Its sources and Meaning”, compares and contrasts the depiction of the Last Judgement at Autun with other Last Judgement depictions from the Byzantine Empire. He describes the motif of the weighing of souls corresponds to that of Byzantine art, stating, “The portrayal of the subject at Autun is markedly similar to the Byzantine type, with demons of sticklike thinness attempting to interfere with the action of the scales. Note that the scales at Autun are not held by the officiating angel but hang from a small cloud, a detail that I do not find in other western Last Judgements of this period, but that is known in the Byzantine images (Denny).” In “The Literature of Art; Review of Gislebertus, Sculptor of Autun”, by C. R. Dodwell, discusses that The Last Judgement was the crowing achievement of the artist, Gislebertus. Inscribed within the monumental sculpture is Gislebertus hoc fecit, Gislebertus made this. It is rare and unlikely that an artist in the Middle Ages signs his work. However it appears that the bishop of Autun gave the permission for Gislebertus to sign his masterpiece. He describes that “Combining emotional tension with liturgical gravity, depth of modeling with shallowness of projection, variegated in gesture, expression, and even drapery, pullulating in detail with dramatic episode yet forming as a whole a magisterial composition of tranquillity and majesty, it shows to the full Gislebertus’s power as an artist and imagination as a visionary.” Dodwell also discusses the decorative sculpture at the Autun Cathedral is insignificant due to the fact that the sculpture has been designed by a trained mind. He states “Not only is he a craftsman genius, creative in conception and memorable in achievement, but he is also a sculptor whose name we know, whose development we can trace and whose influence we can follow. Moreover, to the best of our present knowledge, he is the only Romanesque sculptor who carried out the complete decoration of a lavishly carved church virtually single-handed” (Dodwell, p545).

It is known that the Autun Cathedral is a highlight of Romanesque art, due to the fact that one artist, Gislebertus, completed all of the sculpture. This is a presumption regarding the latin inscription ‘Gislebertus me fecit,’ Gislebertus made this, within the tympanum sculpture. It is extremely rare that any artist of the middle ages would sign their work, especially that of a religious building.  This has created a controversy surrounding the name ‘Gislebertus’. Linda Seidel, author of Legends in Limestone: Lazarus, Gislebertus, and the Cathedral of Autun, claims “In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Gislebertus has been St. Lazarus’s modern equivalent- the church’s guardian angel and sanctified hero. Recognition of him as the sculptor of Autun first occurred in the 1830s, a decade in which the French quest for national grandeur brought to prominence previously ignored Romanesque monuments, antecedents of the already identified and highly appreciated category of Gothic architecture” (Seidel, 18). It is obvious Gislebertus is of high importance. 

‘Gislebertus hoc fecit’ Signature on tympanum.  Entrance to the nave of St. Lazare. c. 12th century.

“The ‘stone charter’ rather than a written vita asserts a well-placed, historic individual’s engagement with the acquisition of Lazarus’s bones through inscription of his name in a prominent position on the saint’s commemorative monument. The limestone inscription, which has provided modern scholars with what they believe to be the signature of an itinerant sculptor, offered medieval viewers evidence of local nobility’s participation in the development of Lazarus’s legend” (Seidel, 64). 

Gislebertus was one of the most important artists known from the Romanesque era.  He was considered of high importance because he inscribed his name in stone on one of the most prestigious cathedrals of the Middle Ages. By doing this, Gislebertus proclaimed his satisfaction and pride in his work. Seidel asserts the fact that “the words introduced a distant, to us seemingly obscure, historical individual into the architectural program at Autun and transformed him, in that way, into an important figure in local legend. By manufacturing memory so concretely, the church of St-Lazare, an act of both construction and imagination, obscured the point at which the past left off and the present began” (Seidel, 78).  By inscribing his name in stone, he made himself a legend at the Autun Cathedral with his uniformity of style and rhythm and his lavish use of detail. Gislebertus was a master sculptor  who focused on capturing emotion rather than perfection. As seen in the Last Judgement Tympanum, emotion is strongly represented throughout the sculpture and is visible among the faces of the figures. This horrific scene of  judgment would create fear in any viewer due to the dreadful images being portrayed. During the Middle Ages, the tympanum sculpture served to educate all who enter the cathedral of St. Lazarus. 

Works Cited

Bleeke, Marian. "Romanesque." Board of Trustees of Western Michigan University (2012): 257-65. Print

"The Church of Saint-Lazare, Architecture and Sculpture." Boundless. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2013. <https://www.boundless.com/art-history/romanesque-art/france-and-spain/the-church-of-saint-lazare-architecture-and-sculpture/>.

Denny, Don. "The Last Judgement Tympanum at Autun." JSTOR. JSTOR, n.d. Web. 14 Oct. 2013. <www.jstor.orgg/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp>.

Dodwell, C. R. “Review of Sculptor of Autun by Denis Grivot: George Zarnecki” The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 104 No. 717. 1962

"Mandorla: Ancient Symbol of Wholeness." Mandorla: Ancient Symbol of Wholeness. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Oct. 2013. <http://www.sandplay.org/symbols/mandorla.htm>.

Seidel, Linda. Legends in Limestone: Lazarus, Gislebertus, and the Cathedral of Autun. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1999. Print.

CLAUDE MONET: Time, Light, and Space

In the second half of the 19th century, a group of artists in France began to rebel against the strict standards specified by the French Academy of Fine Arts as well as the well-known art exhibition, The Salon. These artists did not want to conform to these standards. Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Berthe Morisot, Paul Cezanne, Edgar Degas and Alfred Sisley were among the artists who identified themselves as the ‘Independents.’ In 1874, they mounted their first exhibition which turned out to be unsuccessful, but it became a very important step in the history of art (Impressionism.org).

Critics had negative feelings towards this new style of painting. It wasn’t like anything they had seen before. French art critic Louis Leroy had strong opinions to work of Claude Money, titled Impression, Sunrise. He found this painting to be undefined and unfinished; he felt it was only an impression (Impressionism.org). This review was the first time the term Impressionism was used, which became the word used to describe this group of artists.

Instead of being immensely detailed, defined and polished, the characteristics of Impressionist painting were much different. A major characteristic of Impressionist painting is having an emphasis on light and its constant changing through the passage of time. Artists of this movement wanted to portray images as if they were mere glimpses of an event captured at that very moment. It was not necessary to capture the subject itself, rather to capture the artist’s perception of the subject. Very little detail is portrayed. Instead of a smooth and clean finish, Impressionist paintings include visible brush strokes that were done quickly. This conveys the movement and the changing nature of a fleeting moment and a spontaneous feel. Instead of portraying a historic or significant event, Impressionist painters chose to represent ordinary subject matter which included scenes from everyday life. The idea was to capture reality and truly depict what was seen at that given moment. The Impressionists broke the traditional rules referring to composition and began to experiment by looking at their subjects from unusual angles and often cropped or framed their work (Impressionism.org).

Another important aspect of most impressionistic paintings is that they are done “en plein air”, a term that is derived from the French term, ‘in open air.’ During the 19^th, century working in natural light in the outdoors was popular among many of the Impressionist artists. Often times they would sketch the compositions and a few studies out in the open air, and then would complete the final painting in their studio. This technique also made it easier if the artist was working on a series. Painting “en plein air” gives the illusion of a scene being flooded with sunlight, and focuses on how light falls on objects to affect the color in which we see.

Claude Monet is said to be founder of French Impressionism and an impact on the movement of expressing one’s perception of nature. It was his painting in which Louis Leroy first utilized the term ‘Impressionism.’  Monet was born in 1840 in Paris and moved to Le Harve, Normandy in 1845.  In around 1856,  he befriend landscape artist Eugéne Boudin who first launched him into an artistic circle. After his mother died in 1857, he spent a lot of time with his aunt, Marie-Jeanne Lecadre, who unlike his father, encouraged him in his artistic talents. Due to her support, Monet decided to spend a year in Paris in 1859. After serving in the military  in 1861, he had strong ambitions to become a painter of landscape. His aunt then again persuaded his father into allowing him to live in Paris to study painting under Charles Gleyre. He also befriended artists Pisarro, Renoir, Bazille, and Sisley (House,  5).

Monet is known for his spontaneity and vivacity of his painting technique. Among many other Impressionist painters, he paints a range of subject of matters with the ‘en plein air’ approach. This emphasizes on his true devotion to the close observation of nature. Different from previous masters who painted over a dark ground, Monet paints over a white or light beige toned ground which enhances the brilliance of colors. He would then lay in the main elements in the appropriate color in a loose underpainting, later working up areas in a range of broad contours in quick and visible brushstrokes (Potts, 7) His works depict true impressionism while presenting the natural world within a fleeting moment.

In the early 1890s, Monet stopped traveling as much as he previously had and spent most of his time at home in Giverny. His newest obsession was recording the changing effects of light precisely. This resulted in several series of paintings such as Haystacks, Poplar Trees, Lily Ponds, the River Thames and the Rouen Cathedral.  Each series portrayed the same subject matter again and again on every canvas. To some, this may be a boring approach by denying the right to experimentation, but to Monet, this was an opportunity to depict the true nature of light. (Anderson, 284).  Monet had an interest in gardens and painted the Botanic Garden in the city of Rouen, France (He even obtained some of his plants for his garden in Giverny from there). 

One of the most magnificent churches of Notre-Dame in Rouen is one of the greatest Gothic Cathedrals in France, completed in the thirteenth century. It is embellished with bristling pinnacles, pediments, and stone-fretted windows. The Renaissance and Gothic styles represented all that was best in French history and culture. Monet was captivated by the breathtaking facade. He spent time observing the Cathedral and how light affected the shape and substance of the architecture during different times of the day and year. Monet decided to create a series of paintings on the facade of the Cathedral, yet discovering his greatest challenge (Anderson, 302).

The Rouen Cathedral was the first series of Monet’s in which he concentrated so exclusively on an architectural subject. Across the street from the West Facade, he rented a small apartment which he utilized as his studio. He would begin working at 6:00 a.m. when the shadows appeared to be a misty blue-grey.  He would continue to paint throughout the day until 6:30 p.m. when the sun sets beyond the building, leaving a vivid orange glow (Anderson, 304). Because the cathedral had no dominant color to dictate his palette, he was able to create a sequence of color variations. Smooth blues would depict morning, vivid ochres and golden hues represent a sunny day, and browns and grays would depict overcast. As quoted by Monet, “For me,  a landscape does not exist in it’s own light, since it’s appearance changes at any moment; but the surrounding atmosphere brings it to life, the air and the light, which vary continually... for me, it is only the surrounding atmosphere that gives subjects their true value” (Tucker, 8). The weather caused many frustrations for Monet. Some days he could not paint at all due to conditions such as snow or rain. Because the smallest change of lighting is crucial when continuing a previous painting, he had to wait until the weather and light was exactly the same as it was when he began the painting. This discouraged him throughout the process.

Over the course of a year, between 1892 and 1893, Monet painted over thirty views of the  Cathedral. Because of the ever-changing essence of light, he would work on several different canvases at a time and switch from one to another as the day progressed (Metmuseum). He would choose which one to work on depending on the time of day, the weather condition and the presence of light. Because he could only work on these paintings for so many hours a day, he would bring them to his studio in Giverny to carefully adjust them. Since Monet had the ability to paint a scene quickly, he was able to finish it using sketches combined with memory.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City houses one of the most magnificent collections of Impressionist Art. One of the twenty paintings of the Cathedral is in this collection. It is titled “Rouen Cathedral: Le portail (Soleil),”  completed in 1894, oil on canvas.

This painting depicts the facade of the west portal in sunlight. Monet paints the building with an absence of perspective and takes the approach of a much less traditional view. The viewer is thrust close to the building and the whole of the building cannot be seen. There is no other element in the painting other than a very small portion of the blue sky. 

Monet emphasizes the golden glow that represents a sunny day. The clear blues in the shadows contrast with the sunlit surfaces which are a light beige. There are rich schemes of reflected color added in the areas of deep shadow. The most contrasting element is the deep arches within the portal which is portrayed in a burnt umber. The blue from the small section of the sky is accented throughout the rest of the building to create depth. He creates a sense of volume and depth entirely through color relationships. There are no actual lines, only shapes and forms of color to depict the structure of the building. Detail is not used in this series of painting (along with any Impressionistic painting for that matter), as Monet does not dwell on architectural detail. He aims to capture the fleeting moment of light on the surface of the building. 

The dynamic light Monet uses gives life to something as inanimate as the facade of a cathedral. The facade is painted with highly textured brushstrokes that convey the aspect of sculpted stone and makes it palpable. The surfaces are built up from thick layers of paint which creates not only implied but an actual texture. The strokes that were laid early in the process of painting remain visible. Monet took a break for a year from painting the cathedral and even painted over sections in his studio. This creates an encrustation of paint which critics found to be reminiscent of the actual stonework of the building (Potts, 194). This technique allows Monet to emphasize the paradox between a permanent solid structure and the ever-changing essence of light.

In the 1890s France was undergoing a revival of catholicism which immediately made the series a well received subject among collectors and critics. In 1895, Monet successfully exhibited 20 from the series in the Durand-Ruel’s Gallery in Paris. It took him three years to reach exhibition (Potts ,194). Monet’s work has been an important element in the context of modernity in art since the beginning of his career. His painting, Impression, Sunrise; had become a turning factor in the group of Impressionists as it determined their identity. While critics believed their work was sketch-like and unfinished, many others admired it for portraying modern life. In Edmond Duranty’s La Nouvelle Peinture (The New Painting), he accepted their new subject matter as a revolution in painting. (Metmuseum). Today the work of the impressionists is known for its depiction of modern life and its absorption of new ideas and subject matter. The techniques that were adopted by the Impressionists are still in existence today among present-day artists. The style was soon accepted in the official Salon as the new way to describe modern life (Metmuseum).

Many artists focused on the Industrial Revolution, depicting railways, trains and factories. Monet in particular concentrated on this subject matter. During the time period of the Impressionists, the city of Paris was undergoing renovation under Emperor Napoleon III, which is another important aspect of modernity. Artists used this aspect in their paintings. The existence of Paris at this time seems to be as fleeting as the moments captured by the artists. The Rouen Cathedral series is considered to be modernism due to techniques Monet used to capture the effect of light, rather than the architectural detail. It is not a depiction of the subject, but a depiction of the changes the subject undergoes throughout time. Everything in life undergoes changes in some shape or form. This is modernity. 

Georges Clemenceau, a French statesman, argued to have the state buy the whole Rouen Cathedral Series. He was not successful in convincing them and thus the paintings were dispersed throughout different countries. As quotes by Clemenceau, “In front of Monet’s views of [Rouen Cathedral] one begins to realize that art, in setting out to express nature with ever-growing accuracy, teaches us to look, to perceive, to feel” (Anderson, 310). Monet’s series of The Rouen Cathedral was highly accepted for its excellence and beauty.

As well as Monet’s other works of art, the series truly depicts Impressionism as it gives the ‘spur-of-the-moment’ scene. As a painter of landscape, Monet stepped out of his boundaries and created a series of paintings of an architectural element. He justified the importance of light in the perception of a subject at a given time and place.  Light seems to be impossible to capture due to the fact it is every-changing, however Monet captured these changes in an extraordinary manner. Claude Monet was a master painter who has inspired many and will inspire many more to come. 

Works Cited

Anderson, Janice. Monet. Edison, NJ: Chartwell, 2006. Print.

"Impressionism." Impressionist Art & Paintings, What Is Impressionist Art? Introduction to Impressionism. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Nov. 2012. <http://www.impressionism.org/>

"Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History." Claude Monet: Rouen Cathedral: The Portal (Sunlight) (30.95.250). N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2012. <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/30.95.250>.

House, John. Monet, Nature into Art. New Haven: Yale UP, 1986. Print.

Joseph Baillio. Claude Monet, 1840-1926: Paris, Galeries Nationales, Grand Palais, September 22, 2010-January 24, 2011. Paris: Réunion Des Musées Nationaux, 2010. Print.

Paul Hayes Tucker, and Mary Anne Stevens. Monet in the 20th Century. London: Royal Academy of Arts, 1998. Print.

Potts, Vanessa. Essential Monet. Bath: Dempsey Parr, 1999. Print.

MoMA's 'Inventing Abstraction : A Critical Responce

Vasily Kandinsky, French, born Russia. 1866–1944 

Untitled 

1913 

Watercolor, India ink, and pencil on paper mounted on board 

19 1/2 x 25 1/2" (49.6 x 64.8 cm) 

Musée national d'art moderne/ Centre de création industrielle, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris. Gift of Mme Nina Kandinsky 

image source: http://pavlinachakarova.com/blog/?p=926 

         Towards the end of the 19th century artists were abandoning traditional ways of art making. These artists were opposed to the mainstream cultural values of society and sought to go beyond the ideas and techniques that were culturally accepted. They  deliberately isolated themselves and went from seeking acceptance to what is considered the “norm”, to broaden society’s perspective of what can be considered art. They expected the response from critics and the general public to be one of outrage. “Avant-garde” is the term used to describe this group of artists that sought to challenge traditional art and acceptance in society. Avant-garde artists pushed the possibilities of ‘what is art’ to the point where eventually it became the new ‘norm’. Avant-garde art reached its potential when the original goal to challenge society was fulfilled. Society grew to accept the innovating and shocking work that these artists introduced to the world.

The Museum of Modern Art in New York City is home to one of the most magnificent collections of modern art. From December 23, 2012 to April 15, 2013 the museum is presenting a selection of works including paintings, drawings, sculptures, books, films, photographs, atonal music and non-narrative dance to demonstrate the beginning of modernism’s greatest innovation: abstraction.

Inventing Abstraction, 1910-1925 is an exhilarating exhibition with works carefully chosen by curator Leah Dickerman. Her intentions for this exhibition were to display works of modern art in which recognizable subject matter was absent. The works chosen represent pure abstraction. Before entering the exhibition, you will notice a diagram which networks the artists who played a large role in the development of the new language of modern art. These artists are linked together to those they have a documented acquaintance with. This graph designated the idea that abstraction was not the development of one individual, rather it is a combination of brilliant minds in which empowered the movement to occur.  Dickerman quotes, “Our primary thesis of the show is that abstraction is about relationships. It is a product of a whole vast group of people pushing each other to evermore radical positions. It’s as big a re-writing of the rules of cultural production as we’ve seen since the Renaissance.” Abstraction didn’t happen over night. It was a continuous notion that artists explored throughout time. Upon entering this exhibition I was excited to see such a large collection of abstract art shown together to tell the story of abstraction. Abstract art had such a strong impact on modern art as well as the art we create today. If it weren’t for the so called ‘rebel’ artists that challenged the traditional concepts of art which were accepted by society, artists today would still be making the same work we have seen for centuries. 

This exhibition was a rewind-to-the-past, as it gave the public a visualization of art in the early 20th century. Museum goers were given the same thrill that was stimulated by these works of art during the time they were completed.   My criticism wouldn’t be on the show itself, rather it is on the title of the exhibition, “Inventing Abstraction, 1910-1925” which describes the overall supposition of the show. It is hard to argue that abstraction was invented from 1910-1925. I would consider this to be the time abstraction was at the height of its development. This is the period abstraction emerged. It was thrilling, adventurous, as well as questionable to those who came to appreciate art and much of this was captured in this show.  However, I would argue that abstraction began long before the 20th century.

       From the mid-late 19th century the Impressionists were one of the first to step outside the comfort-zone in art making by painting ‘mere impressions’ of the natural world. They allow light and color to be the most important factor in their work. In 1877, George Abbot Mcneil Whistler completes his well known, Nocturne: Black and Gold- The Falling Rocket. This painting depicts complete abstraction, yet it is not considered abstract. Whistler explores the relationship of music and painting, similar to that of other painters included in this exhibition.  In 1883, Claude Monet began his series paintings, which he is so well known for. Over several decades his imagery transforms from impressionist depictions of the world to broken strokes of color which resembles abstracted forms. In the 1880s, Paul Gauguin and Vincent van Gogh experiment with flat planes of color with little to no detail. This is where strict depictions of the subject is disregarded and it steered the way to the advancement of abstraction. Paul Cézanne’s simplified and dissected landscapes influence Picasso and Braque in developing Cubism. The Fauves experiment with unnatural uses of color to depict their subjects. (ISM). Claimed by Jed Perl, art critic of The New Republic, “abstraction, which arguably originated with the symbolist impulse in late-nineteenth-century art, was always less a matter of banishing reality than it was a matter of creating new realities, each of which had its own relationship with what the painters who in the nineteenth century set up their easels out of doors referred to as reality” (Perl).  All in all, I don’t believe abstraction was invented from 1910-1925, it was then that it was at the height of its development. 

Jerry Saltz, senior art critic for New York Magazine claimed the exhibition raises problems for the general public. Those who are ‘outsiders’ in the world of art look upon this work with uncertainty and dismay . The well known phrases such as “This is art?” or “Oh, I could do that!” can be heard more than once. He claims, “It can take a lifetime to understand not only why Kazimir Malevich’s white square on a white ground- still fissuring, still emitting aesthetic ideas today- is great art by why it’s a painting at all. That’s the philosophical sundering going on in some of this work, the thrill built into abstraction” (Saltz). Malevich’s Supremist Composition: White on White may be one of most controversial works the exhibition holds. 

I am sure many have stared blankly at the white canvas containing a white square slightly off center. Many may have commented, ‘Really?’ Myself guilty of this reaction. I turned to a friend of mine who accompanied me on my trip to MoMA, “Now come on.” This was before I actually learned about Malevich and his simplistic works of art. I am ashamed I questioned it without knowing ‘why’ it was done. Malevich pushed the limits of abstraction to see what he could get away with, what was considered art anymore. He thought he could open the door to a new society with his newfound freedom. We need to forget everything about the past and abandon everything we know. He wanted to create a new visual vocabulary, a new meaning of art. This he certainly accomplished. Malevich’s White on White was one of the most radical paintings of it’s time, and it still receives the same criticism as it did then. 

The exhibition’s curator, Leah Dickerman, tells the story of abstraction as it must have nothing to do with recognizable subject matter. She is wrong in the sense that all recognizable subject matter must be abandoned in order to be abstract. Argued by Jed Perl, art critic of The New Republic, claims that “the trouble with the way Dickerman tells this story... She emphasizes the nobility of artists who were either on the verge of entirely banishing recognizable subject matter or had already done so.... In order to maintain the scheme of “Inventing Abstraction.” it sometimes seems that Dickerman is forced to willfully ignore the evidence before her eyes... If “recognizable subject matter” has been banished, how is it that so many of the works in the exhibition contain letters or numbers, which are recognizable to any child? ” (Perl). I agree with Perl’s point in which ‘recognizable subject matter’ is banned, yet there are works within this show that do have recognizable subject matter. The very first work in the show, Picasso’s Femme á la Mandoline may be controversial in this idea. Saltz claims that it is “an intriguing, dusky-colored 1910 work with cubistic compartments, shapes and slants. Apart from a curve that could be from a mandolin or a hint of a hip, there are almost no defining real-world featuers. This is Picasso coming this close to abstraction. Then he blinks. “There is no abstract art,” he stated. “You must always start with something...” (Saltz). This is true, there must always be a starting point, something that drives the idea to create an abstract work. 

Overall I found MoMA’s Inventing Abstraction, 1910-1925 to be very intriguing. It is almost overwhelming with the amount of works that are included, but it gives We are given a revival of the thrill that was once startled society when this ‘new art’ came into place. The artists’ intent to challenge traditional art and outrage the public was successful. To this day, artists strive to challenge themselves to push their potentials to make a mark on art’s history. The artists in this exhibition clearly have done so. 

 ISM "Timeline of Abstract Art." Timeline. Illinois State Museum, n.d. Web. 05 Mar. 2013. <http://www.museum.state.il.us/ismdepts/art/Abstract/htmls/timeline.html>.

Perl, Jed. "The New Republic." The New Republic. The New Republic, 19 Jan. 2013. Web. 05 Mar. 2013. <http://www.newrepublic.com/article/art/111990/moma-inventing-abstraction-exhilirating-challenging-and-completely-wrong>.

Saltz, Jerry. "Saltz: MoMA's Inventing Abstraction Is Illuminating-Although It Shines That Light Mighty Selectively." Vulture. New York Media LLC, 6 Jan. 2013. Web. 05 Mar. 2013. <http://www.vulture.com/2013/01/saltz-on-inventing-abstraction-at-the-moma.html>.